Order of the Red Grail
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An Excursion into the Mind of C. G. Jung,
Father of Analytic Psychotherapy
by
Jason J. Blodgett-McDeavitt


for
EDPS 964
University of Nebrasksa, Lincoln
10 July, 1997




Analytical Psychology cannot be adequately examined without first delving into the history of it's father, Carl Jung. The extraordinary story of this individual contributes a greater understanding to his theories of human nature and of our psychic construction. Jung was a medical doctor who focused on psychiatry, but was deeply fascinated with realms few practitioners of medicine dwelt. He had a keen interest in the occult, especially spiritualism and alchemy, Jung interjected a strong spiritual quality into psychology, a field in which many apparently reject the notions of soul and spirit all together.

This paper will briefly examine the life of Carl Jung, and then focus it's attention on the components that make up Analytic Psychology, specifically the states of consciousness and the composition of the psyche. It will also look at where others have taken Jung's theories and hopefully shed some light onto where else these theories might be applied, from within and without the realm of psychology.

A Brief Glimpse into Jung's History


Jung's parents were an ill-matched pair. The Reverend Paul Jung was disappointed with his life. His goal in life had been to become a professor of Oriental languages. Upon graduation, he settled to the post of a country parson. His life grew more and more desperate. Carl was born when his father was in his mid thirties. In his memoirs, Carl assumes at least partial responsibility for his fathers condition, which Carl chose to see as a spiritual crisis.

This morose of the soul effected Paul Jung's health. He eventually became something of a hypochondriac, believing he had stomach cancer. His health concerns reached deaf ears, as his family and doctors believed them to be in his mind. Had they listened, he probably wouldn't have died at the age of 52.

Where Jung's father was morose, his mother was vivacious. Emilie Jung came from a ministerial family, so it was expected for her to become the wife of a minister. She was quite unhappy with marriage to Paul Jung, but instead of letting her husbands moods bring her to the gates of depression, she chose to become a jolly woman who had a love of gossip.

Yet there was more to Emilie Jung than a plump and jolly ministers wife. A young Carl saw in this woman something ancient and sacred, an earth-mother whose sanctity came not from the God and Jesus of his father, but from the wild and darker realms of Wotan and the Wild Hunt. This was the mother Carl related with. This fearsome creature which focused her energies exclusively upon Carl, which was partially responsible for Carl putting up barriers around his psyche, lest his mother know too much about him. This was when Carl was about three or four years old. Carl chose to spend time by himself instead of with other children. He would take long walks in the forests and draw pictures of war (Stern, 1976).

When Jung was sent away to school, he carried his neurotic behavior with him. He quickly alienated himself from his classmates and teachers by his arrogant behavior and a penchant for mischief. He eventually suffered what was tantamount to a nervous breakdown and was sent home. For a period of months, he was unable to pick up a school book and not fall into a fainting fit. The doctors were unable to help the young Jung with his fits. He was eventually able to "cure" himself by forcing himself to study, regardless of the discomfort.

When Jung was working on his medical degree, he began to study the occult and paranormal. He had a cousin, Helene, who was a medium. He used his cousin's spiritualist activity as the subject of his dissertation. Jung's interest in the occult, especially in alchemy, was a major influence on his psychological theories (Stern, 1976). Jung's writings include works on alchemy, UFO's, and the occult (Jung, 1977, 1978).

Jung was first exposed to Freud in 1900 when he read Freud's Interpretation of Dreams. It was a work that, at first, Jung was unable to comprehend. In 1903, he re-read the book and became an ardent defender of Freud's theories. He finally met Freud in 1907. Both men were duly impressed with each other. In 1909, Freud and Jung traveled to America together. This was the most physical contact the two men had with each other. Most of their communication was done through correspondence (Progoff, 1953; Stern, 1976).

Freud had named Jung his heir apparent, and considered Jung to be one of his disciples. Jung, on the other hand, considered himself a contemporary of Freud. Jung was not completely satisfied with Freud's theories, and was especially resistant of Freud's belief in sexuality being the cause of most psychological problems. Jung thought Freud's strong fascination in the subject dominated and unbalanced his scientific work (Progoff, 1953).

It was in 1912 that Jung severed his connection to Freud. His doubts in the psychosexual aspects of Freud and dissatisfaction with the reliance he had placed in Freud were strong motivating factors in the creation of his own theories.

Jung's View of Human Nature


Jung had a much more complex structure of the human psyche than did Freud. Multiple levels of awareness housed a variety of complexes and archetypes which became manifest to mankind through dreams and other consciousness raising techniques. These levels of consciousness will be examined first, followed by the various components of those levels.

Levels of Awareness


Central to Jung's theories, as in Freud's, are the levels of awareness, or consciousness. Freud examined the Conscious, Sub-Conscious, and Unconscious levels of awareness. Jung's psychology looks at the Conscious, the Personal Unconscious, and the Collective Unconscious. Each houses a different level of our awareness, understanding, and knowing.

Consciousness. This level of awareness Jung believed to be the accessible side of our consciousness. This is the realm of our senses, emotions, intellect, desires, and other functions which we have some control over. They are the overt functions of the personality. It is through our Conscious mind that we make meaning of and interact with world around us (Corsini & Wedding, 1995: Jung, 1968). It also contains us a starting point for our analyses of events that happen to us (Progoff, 1953).

Personal Unconscious. Jung (1968) said that the Personal Unconscious "is that part of the psyche which contains all the things that could just as well be conscious" (p. 48). Being Unconscious, it contains thoughts and emotions which have been repressed from the Conscious mind, but they have been banished to the Unconscious deliberately (Progoff, 1953)
Fantasy's often originate from the Personal Unconscious, and often represent these thoughts and emotions that have been repressed by the Conscious mind. The nature of these repressed thoughts and emotions could be painful or below the sensory threshold, meaning they didn't appear significant enough at first to notice. This level of awareness is what Freud referred to as the Unconscious (Progoff, 1953).

The Personal Unconscious also serves as a buffer between the Conscious and the Collective Unconscious. In this function, it acts as a translator of the images and emotions which the Collective Unconscious presents the Conscious mind in dreams and other mind altering situation (Progoff, 1953).

Collective Unconscious. The final level of awareness is the Collective Unconscious. This is the largest of the three levels of the consciousness and is not accessible by the Conscious mind at all, save what is translated through the Personal Unconsciousness (Jung, 1968). The Collective Unconscious does not develop, like the Conscious and the Personal Unconscious, but is inherent in mankind (Robertson, 1995).

The Collective Unconsciousness is possibly the most misunderstood of all Jung's theories. It does not refer to a universal body of knowledge held by all people collectively. Instead, it refers to a level of the psyche that is deeper and more fundamental than that of the individual personality. It is not that knowledge is shared collectively, rather that there are materials (symbols) which are held collectively by all mankind prior to the personal experience. These symbols are subject to the historical and cultural environment of the individual, but cultural similarities exist in a great number at this level (Progoff, 1953).

This is not to say that there is a body of shared knowledge, or that all people tap into a single pool of understanding. This is one of the great misunderstandings of the Collective Unconscious. According to Jung (1968):

the contents of the collective unconscious are not subject to any arbitrary interpretation and are not controllable by the will. They actually behave as if they did not exist in yourself-you see them in your neighbors but not in yourself. (p. 50)
These symbols and Archetypes may become manifest for us in dreams, or through social interactions. For Jung, the Collective Unconsciousness was understandable only through social function, for it is only truly manifest when we see something in another person which activates something deep within us (Jung, 1968).

Complexes


Within the Personal and Collective Unconscious, exist a number of Complexes. These complexes are composed of a number of associations which take on a seemingly independent nature. Jung postulated that in the case of schizophrenics that the complexes move from the unconscious mind to the conscious mind, resulting in visions and voices in their heads which seem to take on the characteristics of real people (Jung, 1968).

Complexes usually don't take on such a pathological nature, and instead enter our consciousness by way of dreams. In dreams, Complexes may well appear to be people with their own personalities. They can also be made manifest physiologically by inducing bodily responses to certain situations, such as stammering when requested to answer a question one doesn't know the answer (Jung, 1968).

A splitting of the personality is an instance where one or more Complexes are working at a conscious level. This is an example Jung had direct experience with. As a means of coping with his childhood, Jung developed and maintained two distinct personalities. The one was the shy, retiring Jung who was completely introverted and withdrawn. The other was brilliant, in his own mind, and was convinced he was superior to others. Jung felt this to be perfectly normal, and it is possible that many people use similar coping mechanisms (Stern, 1976). The imaginary play friend of a child might be viewed as a healthy complex, while the voice that tells a killer to kill again would be an example of a not so healthy complex.

Archetypes


The Archetypes are a type of Complex which holds meaning for all mankind. According to Progoff (1953):

Archetypes are fundamental patterns of symbol formation which are observed to recur throughout mankind in the contents of the mythologies of all peoples. Jung has also used the term "primordial image" in this regard. By "primordial" he wishes to indicate that they have been expressed in the earliest days of the life-history of the human species. (p. 58)

They are at the most basic layers of the psyche and are represented in all periods of history. They may best be understood as mythical motifs, such as the Hero or the Hero's Journey. This is typified in the works of Joseph Campbell, especially in his Hero of a Thousand Faces, where he compares mythologies from many cultures and finds commonality (Campbell, 1949).

The following Archetypes or motifs are ones in which Jung spent time examining in detail.

Mother. The Mother motif appears in all religions in many forms. The Great Mother appears as the Mother of God, the Universe, or the World in a variety of creation myths. There are many variations of the Mother Archetype. The Good Mother encompasses all the positive behaviors and mannerisms we attribute to mothering. It is an overdeveloped maternal instinct and is represented by the all loving mother who will take care of her children regardless of the situations. On the opposite end of the continuum is the Negative Mother. Where the Good mother nurtures, the Negative Mother destroys. She is represented by figures such as Hecate or Kali (Jung, 1959).

Rebirth. This Archetypes shows itself in all cultures. Most peoples have some concept of rebirth in their theology. It takes many forms, from the transcendence of Christ, to the transmigration of souls. In same cases, it involves very complex hierarchies, such as the Hindu system in which the afterlife mirrors the caste system, or it can be a simple matter of death followed by rebirth followed by death, and so forth (Jung, 1959).

Spirit. Again, in all cultures, there is a universal concept of the Spirit. Like Rebirth, this is a belief which in unable to be quantified and a certain amount of faith is needed (Jung, 1959).

Trickster. The Trickster phenomenon is most apparent in the Native American mythologies, but has strong similarities in European mythology, and in many other cultures. The common trait is that the Trickster is a very clever but not very wise character. He or she is always trying to outwit someone who they feel to be of a lesser intellect. Inevitably, the Trickster gets the short end of the deal. Often, the Trickster will die, only to be resurrected again, sometimes through dumb luck (Jung, 1959).

Dreams


Dreams are the way in which our unconscious mind communicates with our conscious mind. The complexes in our Personal and Collective Unconscious which attempt to make themselves know to us, do so through our Dreams. When the Dream images reach our conscious mind, they reach us in their language, not ours. Unlike a story told by the conscious mind, which has a clear cut beginning, middle, and end, Dreams speak the language of symbols (Jung, 1964).

There are two types of content which a dream can convey to the conscious mind. The first type of content responds to the latent (potential) growth of the psyche. These dreams show what we could be, the possibilities in our own development. The other type of dream expresses obstacles that we have encountered in our conscious mind. In these dreams, our unconscious mind has looked at these obstacles and has played out how best to deal with them. These dreams also convey that information to the conscious mind. Unfortunately, since the language of dreams is symbolic, we are often unable to accurately interpret what these images are trying to tell us (Progoff, 1953).

Jung and Personality Development


Jung expanded upon Freud's structure of the personality. Where Freud was content with the id, ego, and superego, Jung saw the need to design a model less driven by the libido and more attuned to the whole person. Jung's structure of the personality is interwoven with the levels of consciousness. Jung recognized the libido as an important energy source, but disagreed with Freud that it was the primary energy source. Social interactions held more importance than did the libido for Jung (Progoff, 1953).

Ectopsyche and Endopsyche


The terms ectopsyche and endopsyche have been translated into the English to mean extrovert (ectopsyche) and introvert (endopsyche). The Ectopsyche is a system of relationships between the conscious mind and the environment. Meaning is made by external facts being brought into the consciousness from the environment by way of the sensory organs. Simply put, meaning is generated via external sources (Jung, 1968).

For the Introvert, or the endopsyche, it is just the opposite. Meaning is made through a relationship of the contents of the consciousness and the processes of the unconscious. Again, simply put, the endopsyche finds meaning from within (Jung, 1968).

These two concepts are core to an understanding of Jungian personality theory, but it should be stressed that they are just two polarities among many (Jung, 1968). They are perhaps the most visible, and so have gained the most study. Modern theorists, especially the "pop" psychologies, have misused this polarity as a means of categorizing people as either one or the other. This is not part of Jung's original theory. Jung used this typography as a means of gaining access to the deeper, more important factors, in the personality of a patient (Progoff, 1953).

The Four Functions


A person's means of interaction with the outside world are described by what Jung referred to as the four functions. The first of these functions was "Sensation". This is the point at which a person first experiences the outside world. This is done, literally, through the senses. The goal of this function is to establish that there is something beyond the self.

The second function is called "Thinking". It goes beyond the stage of sensation, representing a point where humankind can understand the meaning of the things which she or he has come into contact with via the senses. This is the interpretive step where an individual gives meaning to sensations.

The third function is that of "Feeling". Once an object has been sensed and has had meaning assigned to it, the object must be evaluated by the individual. A person will judge the new object or sensation as pleasant or unpleasant in regards to his or her psychic orientation. This is where the object acquires value.

"Intuition" is the fourth function. Here, one moves beyond the level of the conscious mind into that of the personal unconscious. These are the things than an individual knows directly, regardless of experience. People recognize the implications and overtones of an experience but often is not able to be explained in any other way than by knowing intuitively, without experience. Jung referred to this as the "immediate awareness of relationships".

To bring the four functions together, Sensation tells us that something exists. Thinking defines that something. Feeling informs us of the worth of the subject. Intuition represents a gut level understanding of the object, sometimes at opposition to what the other functions tell us (Jung, 1968).

Jung placed these functions on two continuum. One of the continuum was of Sensation and Intuition, the other Thinking and Feeling. In an individual Ego, either Sensation or Intuition would be dominant, as would either Thinking or Feeling (Jung, 1968). These two continuums when combined with the Introversion and Extroversion continuum form the core of the Myers Briggs Personality Test, a widely used test in industry as well as psychology (Corsini & Wedding, 1995).

From the Outer World, to the Inner


For Freud, the personality was composed of an id, ego, and a superego, all tied to the libido. Jung's theory expanded greatly the structures of the psyche. Beyond the various Functions, lie a string of components. These components are strung between the "Outer world" or social world to the "Inner World" of the unconscious.

The Persona.

The Persona is the most external of all the parts of the psyche. Persona literally means mask in Latin. It is the part of the psyche which comes into contact with the social world. The Persona has two distinct purposes. The first is to make impressions on people. The second purpose is to conceal the inner self from the prying eyes of others (Jacobi, 1964).

Society requires that we, as individuals, fit neatly into classifications. It is the Persona that allows this niche filling. The mask of the Persona tells others that the person is a student or a policeman, a nice person or a harsh one. The Persona is the direct opposite of the unconscious mind for it is of a very conscious nature. A person can consciously build up too strong a persona, and suffer socially from it. An example of this is a person who builds up a highly pious Persona, but is unwilling to live such a life. Another example is a person who builds a very scientific Persona, but does not have the intellectual abilities to live in that state. When these incongruencies happen, there is the danger of a collapse of the Persona. Collapsed Persona need to be re-established and always represent a life crisis for the individual (Progoff, 1953).

The Ego.


For Freud, the Ego was a structure of the personality which acted as an intermediary for the external world and the inner world, constantly being influenced by the wild Id and the moralistic Superego (Corsini & Wedding, 1995). The Jungian Ego remains the mediator between the outer and inner worlds, but takes on much more importance.

For Jung, the Ego was a complex, perhaps our most cherished of complexes. It is the "I". It is the place in the psyche where general awareness of self originates. Beyond awareness, it is the place where understanding of one's existence and memory springs. It can be described as a magnet which attracts contents from the unconscious mind, images, dreams, and darker thoughts. It also attracts impressions from the outside world. It is the fulcrum where all knowledge, both inner and outer, meets to empower our understanding of the world, both inner and outer (Jung, 1968).

The Self.


The Self is as much a goal as it is a component of the psyche. It is the place of balance in the individual. The balance is between the external world and the internal world. Where the Ego acts as a buffer and mediator between these worlds, the Self is the place where all these influences are at peace. It is the place where the opposites all pull on one another, the conscious and the unconscious, the Ego and the Shadow. It is the center of the psyche as a whole (Progoff, 1953). Where the Ego is the seat of the Conscious personality, the Self is the seat of the total personality, objective identify (Edinger, 1972).

Unlike the conscious personality (Ego), the Self can only be explored by dreams or other consciousness altering activities (Such as word association or meditation). It can be likened to the Superego in that it acts as an inner guiding factor. The Self is full of advice for the Ego, which may or may not choose to listen (von Franz, 1964a). When Jung's mystical inclinations are considered, the Self becomes that place where God and Man are united (Edinger, 1972).

One of the goals in Analytic Psychology is the Ego-Self Union. A baby has a unified Self, it is in a state of wholeness. As the child grows and becomes subject to myriad social influences, the Ego and the Self differentiate, bringing the child from the state of wholeness, to one of conflict. This conflict is between the opposites of the inner and outer worlds and is the root of much psychopathology (Edinger, 1972).

The Shadow.


With the exception of the Collective Unconsciousness, the Shadow is perhaps the most misunderstood aspect of Jung's personality theory. On a shallow level, the Shadow represents the darker side of our personalities, those pieces which we have decided are not to be exposed to the outer world and are therefore repressed into the unconscious mind. Indeed, it is not just those darker aspects of our personality we keep hidden, but any factor we deem weak or unfavorable (Henderson, 1964).

A person does this so that she or he may focus on his or her stronger traits, but does so at the risk of unbalancing his or her psyche. In some cases this can be quite dangerous. The repressed Shadow does not go away, it lingers in the unconscious mind gathering energy till it is able to push itself into the conscious mind. This emergence is usually manifest by embarrassing lacks of tact or wisdom. In some cases, it can emerge as full neurosis. Typically, an individual will usually deal with her or his Shadow by exerting more energy to bury it, and worsens the condition (Progoff, 1953).

The Animus-Anima.


Jung's investigations into his patients dreams and behavior lead him to believe that each of us, male and female, contains both traditionally feminine and traditionally masculine traits. Neither sex, though, normally accepts and uses the traits and behaviors of the other sex, so that those traits remain locked in the unconscious mind of the person. Here, at the deepest level of the psyche, the Animus and the Anima are born. For men, the inner female is called the Anima, and for women, the inner male is the Animus. The Anima and Animus are the parts of the psyche most divorced from the external world, so are only able to communicate to us thorough our dreams (Robertson, 1995).

The parent of the opposite sex is one of the influences on how the Anima or Animus develops. A healthy Anima/Animus can act as a guide. This is manifest in certain Eskimo Shamen who recognize this inner feminine as a protector on the spiritual plane, or in the Unconscious (von Franz, 1964a).

When the Anima/Animus is not allowed to develop in a healthy environment, A man might take on the "negative" aspects of the feminine. This is especially true when emotions are effected. The Anima "exaggerates, falsifies, and mythologizes all emotional relations with his work and with other people of both sexes" (Jung, 1989, p 120). Furthermore, Jung (1959) states that the Anima, when brought to the conscious level, is "fickle, capricious, moody, uncontrolled and emotional, sometimes gifted with daemonic intuitions, ruthless, malicious, untruthful, bitchy, double-faced, and mystical" (p58). The Animus exhibits similarly negative traits, but those attributed primarily to men. Again, according to Jung, it is "obstinate, harping on principles, laying down the law, dogmatic, world-reforming, theoretic, word-mongering, argumentative, and domineering" (p58).


State of Research in Analytic Psychotherapy


The field of Analytic Psychology has been very influential, though many schools of psychology don't formally recognize the contributions Jung made to the field (Corsini & Wedding, 1995). Aside from Psychology, Jung's theories have influenced the works of writers like Campbell, whose Hero of a Thousand Faces influenced George Lucas, creator of the Star Wars movies (Lucas, 1977). Other artists, as well as theologians, mythologists, and those involved in cultural studies, have also been influenced by Jung (Jacobi, 1964).

Jung took part in empirical research, examining his theories from a multicultural perspective. Others have followed in his footsteps. Dr. James Hillman has taken Jung's theories beyond the Analytic, and is a forerunner in the field of Archetypal Psychology. Hillman uses the term archetypal, as opposed to analytical, because it reflects "the deepened theory of Jung's later work which attempts to solve psychological problems beyond scientific models" (Hillman, 1972). From Jung, the Archetypal psychologists, take the basic and universal structures of the human psyche and the Archetypes, considered to be patterns of the psyches relational modes (Hillman, 1983).
Dream analysis, pioneered by Jung and Freud, recognizes Jung primarily in that he believed dreams to be quite normal. Where Freud would look for pathological elements in dreams, Jung treated them as if they were completely normal extensions of the Unconscious into the Conscious mind (Cushway & Sewell, 1992).

Use of his archetypal theories have also found their way into a variety of self help books. These books often give instruments to measure the strength of a variety of archetypes within the person taking the test. A typical example of this is The Hero Within, by Carol Pearson. This book examines six archetypes (Innocent, Orphan, Wanderer, Warrior, Martyr, & Magician) and gives analysis of what the various levels of each indicate (Pearson, 1986).

Religion is another area where Jung's theories have been used. Archetypes and levels of consciousness have been used to reinterpret the scriptures and other religious writings, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls (Hoeller, 1989).

Jungian theory has gone full circle, and has found itself being examined by those who study the Occult. Some have used the Archetypes to interpret the Tarot, using Jung's theory to add a level of psychological validity to what is often thought of as a tool for the naive (Nichols, 1980). One author has gone as far as to re-envision the Tarot in Jung's image, reworking the traditional designs to incorporate archetypal images in a clear and concise manner (Wang, 1992).

Discussion


Many authors, both within and without the realm of psychology have written a great deal on Jung. These range from pure psychology, to the world of entertainment, to pop psychology, and to religion and the occult (von Franz, 1964b). It's tough to think of where Jung's works have not had an influence.

Continued examination of the cross-cultural similarities in the archetypes has merit in that it will continue to bring down the artificial boundaries that we as a species have set up using race and culture. The more we delve into these similarities, the more we realize that there is more alike in all people than there is different.

The Anima and the Animus also serve as potential means of breaking the artificial barriers separating men and women. Although Jung's view of these complexes would be viewed as highly sexist today in their raw form, they still have much to offer. The belief that we each are composed of male and female gender traits is very important. When men can become more attuned to the "inner feminine" and women to the "inner masculine", they become more balanced within themselves. Individuals who experience such inner balance tend to find themselves in a state of harmony which will be apparent to those around them, and hopefully bring them closer to such a state themselves.

Using Jungian dream analysis has potential in integrating the inner and outer world of individuals and can be a much softer route of therapy than some of the more confrontational styles. Additionally, merging archetypal theory with guided meditations can help clients to gain insight both into their inner world, and into how to deal with the stresses they deal with daily.
As a whole, the Jungian theories give a very coherent, albeit complicated, framework with which to work. Clearly, though, it is not a theory for everyone. A mystical leaning would almost be required to work deeply with Jung. For those who are firmly rooted in the concrete and empirical, Jung offers little. However, to those who deal well with abstracts and enjoy the world of dreams and imagination, Jung's theory offer a wealth of understanding.

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