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I. Thesis Statement
II. Introduction
III. Description of the Neo-Pagan Movement
A. A Brief History of the Neo-Pagan Movement
B. What the Neo-Pagan Movement is not
1. It is not Satanism
2. It is not a cult
IV. Oppression against Neo-Paganism
A. Historical origins
B. Modern acts of hate
1. Slander Against
2. Acts of Oppression
3. Internal Oppression
a. Witch Wars
b. Negative role models
V. Hope for the future
VI. Conclusion
VII. References
The Neo-Pagan Movement and Oppression
This paper will examine the Neo-Pagan movement, with an emphasis on the
oppression faced by the movement from external and internal sources.
Oppression against religious movements is as old as recorded religion.
The Crusades, Christian martyrdom, the destruction of the Cathar and other
"heretics", anti-Semitic actions, and the burning of African-American
churches in the southern region of the United States, all reflect oppressive
and sometimes genocidal acts against members of differing religious groups
(Baigent, Leigh, & Lincoln, 1983; Burman, 1984; Chafetes, 1985; Fox,
1986; Minges, 1996; Szlakmann, 1990). Some of these appear to reflect racial
overtones, and some do not. The Neo-Pagan movement, although relatively
small and primarily White middle class, faces hostility in the form of prejudice
and discrimination (Adler, 1986; Finley, 1991; Russell, 1985).
This examination of the Neo-Pagan movement will begin with a look at what
Neo-Paganism is, followed by a brief history of the movement. What the
movement is not will also be explored. Once a firm understanding of the
Neo-Pagan movement has been established, a close look at oppression against
the movement can be taken. This will include acts of oppression from inside
the movement, as well as outside. Finally, areas in which there has been
progress will be looked at, hi lighting the prospect for healthy growth
for Neo-Paganism.
Neo-Paganism describes a wide variety of spiritual practices. Practitioners
are Druids, Witches and Wiccans of various traditions, Shamen, Odinists,
and all manner of Goddess worshipers (Adler, 1986; Crowley, 1996; Russell,
1985). Although these traditions are distinctly different from one another,
they share a number of similar characteristics. With few exceptions, they
follow a positive path of worship, are peaceful folk, honor the Earth Mother,
are ecologically aware, and tend to be feminist in nature, honoring the
feminine aspects of men and women (Finley, 1991; Unger, 1990; Warwick,
1995). Neo-Pagans tend also to be philosophically multicultural in nature
and accept, contrary to mainstream religions, that there are multiple truths
and not one single way (Adler, 1986; Murphy, 1991).
The number of Neo-Pagans in the United States is difficult, if not impossible
to ascertain. Adler (1986) places the number between 40,000 and 100,000.
More recent estimations have been anywhere from 100,000 (Unger, 1990) to
200,000 (Murphy, 1991; Warwick, 1995). Some studies show Neo-Paganism as
being one of the fastest growing religions in the United States (Crowley,
1996).
Demographics of the Neo-Pagan movement represent a wide spectrum of life
in the United States. Most tend to be White, middle class, and well educated
(Adler, 1986; Finley, 1991; Russell, 1985), but this is not the rule. Griffin
(1995), in her phenomenological study of Feminist Witchcraft, described
two covens. One had nine women--seven White, one Chicana, and one African-American
and the other had seven women--five White, one Chicana, and one African-American.
Murphy (1991) also states that the movement draws members of ethnic and
racial minority groups. Neo-Pagans can be found in any walk of life, though
the largest number of them work in high technology. Many are computer programmers
(Adler, 1986; Crowley, 1996) and they have a very strong presence on the
World Wide Web.
Many homosexuals have embraced forms of Neo-Paganism. Gays and lesbians
are generally treated with a great degree of acceptance, if not affirmation,
of their sexuality within the Neo-Pagan community (Griffin, 1995; Murphy,
1991; Warwick, 1995). There are many mixed covens and groves which include
heterosexuals and homosexuals worshipping together in a completely egalitarian
environment. There are groups which are entirely heterosexual which still
embrace homophobia, but these groups are rare. More and more common are
homosexual only groups forming throughout the United States (Adler, 1986).
Wicca has produced a number of homosexual traditions. The Radical Faerie
tradition is a male homosexual branch of Wicca. These men examine and develop
their inner feminine sides, what Carl Jung and his disciples call the anima
(Hillman, 1975). Dianic Wicca is a woman only tradition, primarily followed
by lesbians. This particular tradition shuns men from almost all of their
ceremonies and worship (Adler, 1986).
A Brief History of the Neo-Pagan Movement
It should be clear by now that it is difficult to fit any two Neo-Pagans
into the same mold. Such a spiritual following is diverse and creative.
It is not surprising, then, to realize that the histories attributed to
the movement are many and varied. Some believe that the movement springs
from Paleolithic matriarchal societies (Gardner, 1954; Murray, 1960) or
from the romantic histories of the pre-Christian cultures, such as The White
Goddess (Graves, 1948/1986) and The Golden Bough (Frazer, 1922/1963).
The more moderate Neo-Pagans, especially Wiccans, accept that the movement
is a revival of ancient religion "created" by Gerald Gardner (Adler,
1986; Farrar, 1971). More radical in the Neo-Pagan movement, such as the
Church of All Worlds, draw their inspiration from science fiction (Adler,
1986) while others claim to be following the ancient ways via ancestral
or astral memories (Ringel, 1994).
What the Neo-Pagan movement is not
The traditional view of Neo-Pagans, especially Witches, is of evil, warty
old women doing nasty things to good people, or of sexually promiscuous
folks running around naked. These are gross misrepresentations which the
media has been slow to change (Russell, 1985). Witches have been accused
of cavorting with the Devil since the Middle Ages, and most Neo-Pagan groups
are lumped together with other fringe religions and given the label of cult.
Neo-Paganism is Not Satanism
Satanism requires a belief in the fallen angel mythology, or Satan, who
is a Christian creation born out of the early cults of Zoroastrianism (Armstrong,
1993; Pagels, 1995; Russell, 1985). Neo-Pagans are not Christian, do not
worship a Christian god, nor a Christian devil. In fact, for the most part,
there is no deity of ultimate evil in the Neo-Pagan belief structure (WLPA,
1996b). The Church of Set (formerly Church of Satan) is an active Satanic
organization which is rejected by Neo-Pagans and Christians alike (Adler,
1986; Russell, 1985). Some Neo-Pagans honor Christian mythology in the
same manner of other religious mythologies, as representations of the divine,
and as a path to the Godhead (the ultimate expression of the deity towards
which all mystics strive) (Andrews, 1993).
It Is Not a Cult
To be a cult, there are certain criteria which must be met. Appel (1983),
describes the attributes of a cult as having:
Oppression of the Neo-Pagan stems from a long history of religious and
political intolerance. The allegations made during the Middle Ages Witch
Craze mirrored those against the Knights Templar, and other groups dubbed
heretical, a threat to the beliefs of the faithful, by the Catholic Church.
(Baigent et al., 1983; Burman, 1986; Sinclair, 1992). These claims include
pacts with Satan, sacrifice of children, and other horrible acts. Not surprisingly,
these are the same allegations made against modern Neo-Pagans. Like the
heretic of old, the modern Neo-Pagan may be looked at as a threat to other
religions, especially those who focus on fear of and submission to the deity,
for Neo-Paganism focus's on a the joy of live, not just the sorrow (Adler,
1986, Crowley, 1996).
Historical Origins
The year 1484 marked the beginning of thousands of accusations of Witchcraft,
followed by thousands of executions of Witches with confessions obtained
under torture (Robbins, 1979). The Bull of Innocent VIII (Robbins, 1979)
gave license for two Dominican priests named Kramer and Sprenger to compile
a volume of instruction for inquisitors. These two sons of the Church were
Professors of Theology, presumably suitably qualified to write a book on
religious affairs. Unfortunately, the book they produced was The Malleus
Maleficarum, the "Witches Hammer" (1487/1971). This book detailed
how to identify, try, and kill Witches. The book outlined how Witches gained
the power to change into animals, fly, cast illusions, seduce clergymen,
and, of course, kill children. This book was the dominant word on Witchcraft
throughout the Middle Ages (Kramer & Sprenger, 1487/1971).
It wasn't just in Europe that the church sanctioned-definition of Witches
as servants of Satan was popular. In the United States, 200 years after
the writing of The Malleus Maleficarum, theological experts, such as Cotton
Mather, were also the experts on Witches. The spiritual zeitgeist was directed
by Mather, a man who firmly believed in Satan. He believed that this evil
entity had the will and ability to descend upon mankind and wreak havoc
on human souls. Mather seemed to feel that it was through the piety of
clergymen such as himself that the power of Satan was held at bay (1692/1991).
The resulting impact on the populace in the early Americas included the
Salem Witch Trials which were observed and informed by Mather. The hysteria
concluded with the condemnation and death of 22 men and women, as well as
dozens of accusations (Robbins, 1979).
Modern Acts Of Hate
If one were to assume that hatred of pagans is a thing of the past, one
would be sadly mistaken. One has only to look as far as the media portrayal
of witches and other pagans. There are those today who are convinced that
the Neo-pagan movement is directed by Satan in a deliberate ploy to destroy
good Christians (Acts 17:11, 1996; Marrs, 1989; Woodsong, 1996). These
believers, like Mather, also feel it is their responsibility to provide
a framework of salvation from the forces of Satan, which more closely resembles
the paranoia of the Witch Craze (Marrs, 1989).
Slander Against
Portrayal of Witches with green skin, warts, and pointy hats is a Halloween
tradition, a stereotyped portrayal which the general public generally condones.
Sambo and Mammy stereotypes of African Americans. no longer are treated
with such acceptance. Where one stereotyped image has been accepted as
a negative portrayal of a people, the other has not. This may be due to
ignorance of people who are unfamiliar with Neo-Paganism. However, this
is increasingly unlikely due to increased media coverage of different religious
groups. Primarily, the negative stereotypes of Neo-Pagans exists because
of religious intolerance, primarily from the Religious Right (700 Club,
1996; Acts 17:11, 1996; Champion, 1996; Marrs, 1989). This is the twentieth
century, with the year 2000 quickly approaching, yet there are still clergymen
who believe, and who preach to their flocks, that there is a conspiracy
of Witches seeking to infiltrate and subvert Christian Churches (Woodsong,
1996). Still others believe that Witchcraft requires child sacrifice, going
so far as to state that "a revival of Neo-paganism has brought with
it a revival of human sacrifice in the form of abortion" (Champion,
1996).
Slander against Neo-Pagans goes even deeper. The Acts 17:11 Bible Study
group includes a unit on "those nasty Witches" (Acts 17:11, 1996).
This course defines Witchcraft as "wanting to be a spiritual "mover
and shaker" without submitting to God." This is true, since most
Neo-Pagan groups seek individual empowerment over giving over oneself to
an extrinsic deity (Warwick, 1995).
Multi-million dollar Christian organizations are just as slanderous as the
small, unknown groups. The 700 club, for example, mistakenly states that
The Frosts and Ms. Sprinkle, although very visible, do not represent
the whole of the Neo-Pagan movement. There are very many professionals
from many walks of life, students to professors, housewives to consultants
(Unger, 1990). Personalities such as National Public Radio corespondent
Margot Adler and actress Olympia Dukakis are public role models who are
not negative (Murphy, 1991; Unger, 1990).
Some researchers have examined the benefits that the Neo-Pagan movement
has to it's members. Connections to the old goddesses, such as Demeter,
Brigid, and Persephone are archetypal images which women, and men, can use
to empower themselves. A paradigm shift occurs as people get more attuned
to the Neo-Pagan perspective, a shift from an ideology of self to an ideology
of connectedness with the universe (Warwick, 1995). Psychologist James
Hillman takes it further, in his discourse on the need to return to the
old gods to build our souls and to experience the pluralist universe (1975).
The Neo-Pagan movement is one marked by diversity, both in the members
and in the means of expression. Neo-Paganism may not reach the same place
in society as the traditional religions, but it is clear that Neo-Paganism
is a path for those who are interested in forming a personal connection
with the divine of their choice and are not content with giving that power
to a central religious leader (Adler, 1996).
Neo-Pagans face opposition from the religious right. Many of these are
fundamentalists, who follow the belief that "an open mind is a cesspool
of thought" (Acts 17:11, 1996), which is anathema to the Neo-Pagan
sense of spiritual growth (Adler, 1986).
In the face of this opposition, Neo-Pagans are finding acceptance in mainstream
society. The Unitarian Universalist Church, which has it's roots in Christianity,
accepts not just Neo-Pagans, but homosexuals in their congregations, and
as their ministry (Lady Jane, 1994). Neo-Pagan spokespersons such as Margot
Adler and Starhawk have been asked to speak at many universities about the
movement, and many museums are showing exhibits of the goddess in varied
forms, from different cultures (Unger, 1990).
Unlike many minority groups, Neo-Pagans, generally, have access to the resources,
information, and education to defend themselves. They also tend to be well
networked. Some religions have found themselves mired in tradition, unwilling
to change with the times. Neo-Paganism views religion as it views nature.
It is meant to wax and wane with the coming and going of the seasons, to
ebb and flow with the changing of society (Adler, 1986).
The diversity, independence, and ability to change are qualities which enable
Neo-Pagans to weather the oppressive elements that are presented to them.
Networking and a sense of global community keep Neo-Pagans from across
the United States from being isolated while the fundamentalists seek to
defame and destroy the movement. Neo-Pagans are survivors, who have refused
to buckle under to the stress and strain of hostile local governments and
churches. Numerous Neo-Pagan groups have achieved recognized status, and
the Department of Defense recognizes Wicca, as well as other Pagan traditions,
as valid religions (Department of the Army, 1991). Neo-Pagans may never
be understood or respected by those who oppress them, but we are protected
by the same government. Through education and political activism, Neo-Pagans
are setting the stage to ensure that their rights are upheld.